Galimberti,F. & Boitani,L. & Marzetti,I.  2000. Harassment during
arrival to land and departure to sea in southern elephant seals. Ethol.
Ecol. Evol. 12(4): 389-404.

Abstract
During the breeding season female elephant seals spent most of
their time on land inside harems. When they arrive on land before
joining harems, and when they leave harems to return to sea, they are
exposed to secondary males and may suffer intense harassment. Hence,
arrival and departure present an ideal opportunity to test hypotheses
concerning female tactics of harassment reduction. We studied harassment
during arrival and departure in two southern elephant seal populations
at Punta Delgada (Valdˇs Peninsula; DEL hereafter) and Sea Lion Island
(Falkland Islands; SLI hereafter). Females were less likely to be
intercepted by males during arrival than during departure. They also
arrived mostly at high tide, thereby reducing the distance from water to
the harems. Interception rate and harassment during departure were
higher at DEL, where male density and the breeding sex ratio affected
the likelihood of interception; on SLI, the socionomy had a small
effect. Harassment was higher at low tide at DEL but not at SLI, because
tide level variation was larger at DEL and this resulted in a larger
variation in the distances of the harems from the water. Females
departed more often than expected at high tide at DEL but not at SLI. In
both populations females departed directly to sea, rarely stopping
before reaching the water, and they never sought contact with males.
Social distraction during departure significantly reduced the likelihood
of interception. Departures were more frequent during periods of high
social activity, and females departing just after other females were
less prone to harassment. Accepting copulations with secondary males may
reduce the dangerous effects of harassment: interactions occurring
during departure were less frequently protested, but we found no
indication that departing females were facilitating copulations in a
special manner. Quantity and quality of protest during departures was
similar to protest during the last days of residence of the females in
the harem.